In agricultural systems and natural systems adapted to earthworms, they provide important ecological services including improvement of soil properties (e.g. ., nutrient turnover, soil structure and water flow, pH, functional biodiversity, food sources for vertebrate predators) and increasing plant production. Indeed earthworms have been deliberately introduced to pastures, landfills and reclaimed mite sites in several countries around the world to improve agricultural productivity and minimise soil degradation (Baker et al., 2006).

Troglophilic (cave-dwelling) behaviour has been observed in D. rubidus in Alabama, Georgia, South Carolina, Tennessee (Reeves et al., 1999) and in eastern Canada (McAlpine & Reynolds, 1977).

Parthenogenic species are capable of rapid adaptation, as large numbers of offspring can be produced, some of which are likely to have beneficial mutations (Simon et al., 2002 in Cameron et al., 2008).

Earthworms, especially Lumbricus species have high calcium demands and strong litter calcium preferences (Reich et al., 2005 in Holdsworth et al., 2008). Their high calcium demands may be necessary to supply their well developed calciferous glands, which produce cal¬cium carbonate that could moderate blood CO2 levels and pH when soil pCO2 levels are elevated (Holdsworth et al., 2008). Calcium content of litter is thus a predictor of litter preference among earthworms, and consequently decomposition rates and litter mass loss (Holdsworth, 2006 in Holdsworth et al. 2008).

Exotic earthworms are a particular problem in previously earthworm-free temperate and boreal forests of North America dominated by Acer, Quercus, Betula, Pinus and Populus (Frelich et al., 2006).

Earthworms are often classified based on their activity and feeding type, which affects their impacts on the soil (Bouché, 1977 in Addison, 2009). Dendrobaena octaedra and Dendrodrilus rubidus are epigeic species, which inhabit and feed at the soil surface. Epigeics physically disrupt the organic layer of the soil by consuming and mixing the F and H layers, producing a homogenous and granular form of organic forest floor (Addison, 2009). Lumbricus rubellus operates in two categories, 1) epigeic which inhabit and feed at the soil surface and 2) endogeic which live and feed in the mineral horizons below the organic (LFH) layer. Thus it is considered epi-endogeic in its habits, feeding on organic matter in the forest floor, but also mixing the organic material into the upper layer of mineral soil (Addison, 2009). L. terrestris is a deep-burrowing anecic earthworm, which create permanent vertical burrows in the mineral layer. They come to the surface to feed on litter and pull it down to their burrows, depositing casts of mixed organic and mineral material on the soil surface (Addison, 2009).

Thus earthworms in different functional groups have different impacts on the soil (Frelich et al., 2006; Hale et al., 2008). Often multiple earthworm species inhabit areas of forest, and studies suggest that impacts are greater when earthworms from more than one functional group occur together (Hale et al., 2005; Hale et al., 2008). Earthworm invasions typically occur in waves (e.g. Hendrix & Bohlen, 2002; Eisenhauer et al., 2007), with epigeic (e.g. D. octaedra, D. rubidus) or epi-endogeic (e.g. L. rubellus) species arriving first as they are able to utilise undisturbed forest floors. The first noticeable impacts tend to be physical disruption of the stratified humus layers on the forest floor. Endogeics generally only invade after the organic layer has been modified by epigeic or epi-endogeic species. Anecic species (e.g. L. terrestris) are usually last to arrive (James & Hendrix, 2004 in Addison, 2009).

The purported impacts of invasive earthworms are often varied between publications, and different soil types and soil layers may be affected differently by earthworm invasion. However the main effect of earthworms is to consume litter, and incorporate it into deeper soil layers, thus causing mixing of the A and O soil horizons. This causes extreme reduction of the litter layer and changes in nutrient concentrations and cycling in the soil. Other soil characteristics such as pH, porosity and decomposition rates may also be affected. Physical disruption of plant roots and mycorrhizal associations is also a common impact. These changes to fundamental soil properties have cascading effects on plant communities, microorganisms, micro and mesofauna, birds and mammals (Hale et al., 2008; Addison, 2009).

For a detailed account of the impacts of invasive earthworms please read Earthworms Impacts Information.

Preventative measures: One of the major pathways for earthworm introductions is believed to from release by anglers discarding unwanted live bait. Keller et al. (2007) suggest two alternatives to reduce the likelihood of further establishments while preserving the economically important live trade of earthworms. These are: 1) Replace the species currently sold with earthworm species that are unlikely to establish populations, e.g. Eudrilus eugeniae which has an extremely low invasion risk in the U.S. Midwest, and 2) Strengthen efforts to educate anglers to dispose of live earthworms responsibly, i.e. in the trash where landfill conditions are likely to kill them (Keller et al., 2007) or to prohibit the abandonment of live bait (Cameron et al., 2007).

Similarly, transport of cocoons and earthworms via vehicular transport is a major pathway for introduction to new locations. Thus construction of fewer roads, restricting the amount of traffic on roads or reclaiming roads where possible would minimize spread of earthworms (Cameron & Bayne, 2009).

Management and regulatory strategies should also take into account the fact that some earthworm species, such as Lumbricus rubellus have larger impacts than others. This species is less widely distributed than other exotic species. Thus preventing its introduction to new areas is important, even if those areas are already infested with other species (Hale et al., 2006). Similarly, some forests will be more susceptible to invasion than others. Litter calcium content is likely to be an important predictor of litter decomposition rates by exotic earthworms (Holdsworth, 2008).

Callaham et al. (2006) suggest various policy measures that could be adapted to prevent the spread of exotic earthworms. The authors suggest restrictions on transportation of soils from infested areas to non-infested areas, unless a special permit certifying that the material is free from earthworm propagules has been granted. Formalized earthworm introduction decision making tools are also recommended as an alternative to the ad hoc decisions made by regulating agencies at present. This decision-making process allows for the quarantine of materials containing propagules of earthworms that have not been identified or widely introduced previously. These quarantines would provide time to determine the ecological risk posed by the introduction of a given earthworm species into particular systems. Suggested types of information needed to determine ecological risk include mode of reproduction, number of embryos per cocoon, ecological “strategy”, and temperature, pH and moisture requirements (Callaham et al., 2006).

Cultural measures: Successful establishment of earthworm populations is influenced by management of the site. For example, synergistic effects of the invasive weed buckthorn and exotic earthworms could be minimized by early control measures to limit the weed (Heneghan et al, 2006).

Chemical control: Where non-native earthworms are not well established or are found in discrete populations, the use of chemical treatments to eradicate undesirable worms may be successful. Chemical control have been used in the management of golf courses. While these treatments are highly effective, the non-target effects of chemicals should be examined before large-scale utilization (Callaham et al., 2006).